ÑTagrico.dir 172 Transhumant farmers, graphic reproduction from a Chiusi relief dating from the 5th cent. BC
ÑTagrico.dir 173 Graphic reconstruction of farm cart
ÑTagrico.dir 174 The Plowman, bronze. 5th cent. BC - Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia.
ÑTagrico.dir 201 Agriculture was one of the main resources of ancient Etruria and the Latin authors often praise the miraculous harvests they obtained from their fertile fields, on land that was gradually cleared of trees and, in some cases, reclaimed by means of complex waterworks. Wheat, oil, and wine were produced in such abundance that the Etruscans were able to export them to various centers of ancient Italy and in some cases, such as wine, even overseas, to various ports in the northern Mediterranean.
ÑTagrico.dir 202 We are provided with a precise picture of the agricultural resources of some Etruscan centers in the third century by the list of aid supplied to Scipio the African for his expedition against Carthage (205 BC). On the other hand stock rearing was not as important to the Etruscans as it was for other Mediterranean civilizations, but was mostly practiced at a family level, exploiting the the green pastures of the coast and of wooded areas.
ÑTagrico.dir 203 As well as cattle, donkeys, and mules, indispensable to the tilling of fields and to transportation by cart, sheep and pigs were raised. In this connection the Greek historian Polybius (second century bC) speaks of gigantic sheep's cheeses that weighed 1000 librae (327 kg) each and of a multitude of pigs driven along the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea by a swineherd to the sound of music.
╚HUNTING AND FISHING
╚TRADE
╚METALWORKING
ÑTarezzo.dir 171 Sunset in Val di Chiana
ÑTarezzo.dir 172 The Chimera, bronze. Late 5th cent. BC - Florence, Museo Archeologico.
ÑTarezzo.dir 173 The Chimera, detail
ÑTarezzo.dir 201 Situated at the intersection of four valleys, the Val di Chiana, the Val Tiberina, the Casentino, and the middle valley of the Arno, Arezzo was one of the most important cities of northern Etruria. It has been inhabited continuously from the sixth century BC to the present day. Very little is left of its ancient monuments: a few stretches of the city walls built out of stone and brick, a group of architectural terracottas from temple buildings of the fifth century BC, and fragments of sculptures in the Hellenistic style that probably came from the pediment of a temple. The celebrated bronze sculpture of the Chimera dating from the early years of the fourth century BC was found here in 1573.
ÑTarezzo.dir 202 THE CHIMERA
This famous statue, restored by Benvenuto Cellini in the sixteenth century, probably formed part of a group representing the monster in its mortal struggle with Bellerophon astride the winged horse Pegasus. The inscription carved on the right front leg (tinscvill = dedicated) shows that the magnificent bronze was a votive offering for a shrine on the road to Fiesole.
The Chimera, modeled with great force and produced by a casting technique of the highest level, is now in the Museo Archeologico in Florence.
ÑTarte.dir 171 Apollo of Veio, 6th cent. BC - Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia
ÑTarte.dir 173 The Chimera, bronze. Late 5th cent. BC - Florence, Museo Archeologico.
ÑTarte.dir 174 Tomb of the Leopards, detail
ÑTarte.dir 175 Graphic reproduction of Etruscan vases
ÑTarte.dir 176 Graphic reproduction of Etruscan plate
ÑTarte.dir 177 Disc-shaped fibula, 650 BC - Vatican, Museo Etrusco Gregoriano.
ÑTarte.dir 201 The surviving examples of Etruscan art are mostly connected with funeral rites. The sole and extraordinary exceptions to this rule are represented by a few sculptures, such as the clay Apollo of Veio, which is the only work for which we know the artist's name, Vulca, or the two great bronzes of the Chimera and the Orator. The rest of our knowledge of Etruscan sculpture comes to us from the numerous and sometimes extremely beautiful cinerary urns and ash chests.
ÑTarte.dir 202 On the other hand we have plentiful examples of mural painting, thanks to the tombs that were frescoed in their entirety, and of vase painting, most of it based on Greek models. In the field of metalworking, especially in bronze and gold, the Etruscans displayed exceptional imagination in the motifs they used as well as great technical skill. The techniques were originally learned from the Phoenicians, but the Etruscans were soon able to surpass them.
╚ WRITING
ÑTcaccia.dir 171 Bas-relief depicting wild boar hunt. Volterra, Museo Guarnacci.
ÑTcaccia.dir 172 Graphic reproduction of animals from the front of a sarcophagus
ÑTcaccia.dir 173 Graphic reproduction of animals from the front of a sarcophagus
ÑTcaccia.dir 174 Fishing scene. 6th cent. BC - Tarquinia, Hunting and Fishing Tomb
ÑTcaccia.dir 201 Iconographic sources show that hunting, especially of animals of large size, was very popular among the Etruscan aristocracy. It was practiced with javelins, bows, spears, and axes. Deer were hunted with dogs that pursued and attacked the prey, and sometimes a deer was kept on a bridle by the huntsman and used as a lure. True beating parties were organized for wild boar, with covers set up along the paths most frequently used by the animals. Etruscans of the less well-to-do classes hunted smaller animals, using bows, slings, and snares. Dogs were also used to hunt hares, together with a curved stick known as a ╟legabolo╚ to flush out and bring down the animal.
ÑTcaccia.dir 202 Fish also played an important role in the Etruscan diet. Hooks, harpoons, tridents, nets, lines, and weights of various kinds and sizes have been found, testifying to how widespread fishing was in the seas, rivers, and lakes of Italy, even in very ancient times. In stark contrast to hunting, however, pictorial representations of fishing are extremely rare, for fishing was always considered a humble and inglorious activity.
ÑTcaccia.dir 203 ╚AGRICULTURE
╚TRADE
╚METALWORKING
ÑTcasa.dir 171 Cinerary urn in the form of a hut. 8th cent. BC - Tarquinia, Museo Nazionale
ÑTcasa.dir 172 Graphic reproduction of a hut
ÑTcasa.dir 173 Reconstruction of late Etruscan house
ÑTcasa.dir 174 Graphic reconstruction of Etruscan bed
ÑTcasa.dir 175 Graphic reconstruction of Etruscan cist
ÑTcasa.dir 176 Graphic reconstruction of incense burner
ÑTcasa.dir 177 Graphic reconstruction of brazier on trolley
ÑTcasa.dir 201 The oldest dwellings consisted of huts of a circular or elliptical shape. We know this from the discovery of holes for the posts of their wooden framework and from the form of the cinerary urns of the Villanova era. Later these were replaced by houses on a rectangular plan with a single room and a saddle roof. At a very early stage in history these developed more complicated forms with several rooms and an external portico.
ÑTcasa.dir 202 In the archaic era there were already some dwellings with their various rooms arranged around a central space resembling the atrium of Roman houses. This feature is clearly visible in those tombs whose plan reproduces the subdivision of the house's interior, its structural elements, and in some cases the furnishing as well.
ÑTcasa.dir 203 THE FURNISHING
We know what the furnishing of the Etruscan house was like from pictorial representations, from archeological finds, and from tombs, where the main items of the house's furniture were sometimes carved into the tufa. As in all the civilizations of the ancient world, the furnishings of Etruscan houses must have been fairly limited. We know of various types of chair, bed, table, and stool, while cabinets and small closets were rarer. Among the other pieces of furniture, many bronze candelabra have come to light in excavations. The best-known of these is the one from Cortona.
ÑTcasa.dir 204 ╚ THE CITY
ÑTcerve.dir 171 The Necropolis, general view
ÑTcerve.dir 172 Tumulus tombs, Cerveteri
ÑTcerve.dir 173 Tomb of the Capitals, Cerveteri
ÑTcerve.dir 174 Tomb of the Tarquins, Cerveteri
ÑTcerve.dir 175 Tomb of the Reliefs, interior
ÑTcerve.dir 201 Not far from the coast, between the Bracciano lake and the sea and 45 km to the north of Rome, stood the powerful city of Caere, known to the Greeks as Agylla. The first urban aggregation dates from the Villanova era (ninth-eighth century BC), while it attained its period of greatest splendor in the first quarter of the seventh century BC. In the sixth century BC Caere was the only Etruscan center to have a Treasury, i.e. a building used to store sacred offerings, at the Greek shrine of Delphi. In the fifth century its power began to wane and in the middle of the fourth century it was subjugated by Rome. Very little is now left of the ancient Etruscan city, but the extensive necropolises, with streets and squares laid out according to a precise plan, are better preserved. Among the most significant monuments: the ╟Regolini-Galassi Tomb╚ and the ╟Tomb of the Reliefs╚.
ÑTchiusi.dir 171 The countryside near Chiusi
ÑTchiusi.dir 172 Poggio Gaiella, entrance of a tomb.
ÑTchiusi.dir 173 Necropolis of Poggio Gaiella, internal corridor of a tomb.
ÑTchiusi.dir 174 Canopic vase, 6th cent. BC - Chiusi, Museo Archeologico
ÑTchiusi.dir 175 Canopic vase, detail. Chiusi, Museo Archeologico
ÑTchiusi.dir 201 Chiusi was certainly one of the most important cities of ancient Etruria. The peak of its splendor, between the end of the sixth and the fifth century BC, coincided with the decline of the coastal metropolises and was due in part to its position, which allowed it to dominate the important highways from inland, and in part to the fertile cultivated fields of the surrounding area. One of its kings, Porsenna, attacked and probably conquered Rome in 509 BC. His monumental tomb was mentioned by Pliny in the first century BC. The uninterrupted inhabitation of the site down to the modern era has wiped out almost every trace of the Etruscan city. However many necropolises have been found in the surrounding region, testifying to the existence of small centers of habitation gravitating around the metropolis. The arts and crafts flourished in Chiusi, with such characteristic products as the anthropomorphic ossuaries known as cnÿpi or Canopic vases, memorial stones, and bucchero vases with stamped or relief decorations. In the third century BC Chiusi fell under the control of Rome and in 82 BC Sulla founded a colony there for his own veterans.
ÑTchiusi.dir 202 THE CANOPIC VASES
Canopic vases were oval-shaped containers in which the ashes of the dead were placed. Their appearance dates from the period of Orientalization (seventh century BC) and their name derives from that of the Egyptian vases used to hold the entrails of a body during the embalming process. They had an anthropomorphic appearance, initially limited to a few anatomical features of the face summarily reproduced on the lid. Later on the representations grew increasingly detailed, and at times arms were even attached to the body of the vase. From these characteristic vases of Chiusi were developed the stone statues, representing the dead person, with a space inside to hold the ashes.
ÑTcitta.dir 171 Panorama of Orvieto
ÑTcitta.dir 172 The citty of Veio during the Roman seige, engraving
ÑTcitta.dir 173 Plan of Fiesole
ÑTcitta.dir 201 The construction of Roman, medieval, and modern centers of habitation on top of the ancient Etruscan cities has often destroyed all trace of them, or made their complete identification difficult. The majority of them must have had an irregular layout but there are several examples of urban checkerboard plans with the houses arranged in an orderly manner in square or rectangular blocks. One of the best-known of these is the center of Marzabotto. Sometimes the necropolises, or cities of the dead, which were situated just outside the built-up area, were also laid out on to this orthogonal pattern. This is particularly evident in the necropolis of Crocefisso del Tufo near Orvieto.
ÑTcitta.dir 202 The sacred area was usually located in the highest part of the city, and in it stood magnificent temples richly decorated with painted terracottas. From very early in their history the cities were enclosed in defensive walls, often with towers and moats. In some cases, such as Volterra, their perimeter was larger than the area actually inhabited, so that the men and cattle of the surrounding region could be brought inside in case of invasion. The cities often had elegant entrance gates like the Gate of Mars in Perugia.
ÑTcitta.dir 203 ╚ THE HOUSE
ÑTcommer.dir 171 Cargo boat
ÑTcommer.dir 172 Amphora for wine
ÑTcommer.dir 173 Bas-relief depicting a merchant
ÑTcommer.dir 201 Etruscan trade, especially in the seventh-sixth century, was essentially a matter of importation, as is clearly demonstrated by the disparity between the few Etruscan objects discovered in other countries and the enormous quantity of foreign goods that reached Etruria. The main exports of the Etruscans were raw metals (copper, lead, and iron), extracted in large quantities from the northern mines and from upper Latium.
ÑTcommer.dir 202 Other exports included timber, salt produced in the regions on the Tyrrhenian coast, oil, and above all wine. In fact amphoras for wine have been recovered in large quantities from numerous shipwrecks. There was also a connection between the trade in wine and the export of the bucchero, a small container of typical Etruscan manufacture used to draw off or drink wine, which is found all over the Mediterranean basin.
ÑTcommer.dir 203 With their defeat by the Syracusans at the battle of Cumae (474 BC), the Etruscans lost control of the Tyrrhenian Sea forever, but the crisis in maritime trade led to an increase in traffic along inland routes, with the consequent rise of a number of cities that, like Vulci, exported their products to the Po Valley, central Europe, and the other centers of ancient Etruria.
ÑTcommer.dir 204 ╚ AGRICULTURE
╚ HUNTING AND FISHING
╚ METALWORKING
ÑTcorto.dir 171 Cortona, Panorama
ÑTcorto.dir 172 Pythagoras' Cave, Cortona
ÑTcorto.dir 173 Etruscan Candelabrum , Cortona - Museo Archeologico
ÑTcorto.dir 201 The ancient Etruscan center of Curtun stood on the hill occupied by present-day Cortona, overlooking the fertile Val di Chiana. A few stretches of the ancient city walls have survived, while all that is left of the necropolis are some isolated burial mounds known as ╟melons╚ in the local dialect. In 1726 the Accademia Etrusca di Cortona, the most important center of erudite eighteenth-century research into ancient Etruria, was founded in the town. The Academy's museum houses a splendid bronze candelabrum with a lavish figured decoration that attests to a flourishing local artistic activity in the working of bronze around the middle of the fifth century BC.
ÑTdivini.dir 201 Etruscan divinity of the Underworld, usually winged, resembling the Greek Moira. She represents implacable Fate (destiny).
ÑTdivini.dir 202 Monstrous demon of the Hereafter. Usually represented armed with a heavy hammer.
ÑTdivini.dir 203 The leading male divinity in Etruria, equivalent to the Greek Zeus and the Roman Jupiter. Represented in various ways, in one of the earliest images he appears naked with a lightning bolt in his right hand.
ÑTdivini.dir 204 Goddess of love who can be identified with the Greek Aphrodite and the Roman Venus. In Etruscan ╟Turan╚ probably meant ╟The Lady.╚
ÑTdivini.dir 205 The Etruscan equivalent of the Greek Hermes and Roman Mercury, the messenger of the gods.
ÑTdivini.dir 206 The patron spirits of war are fused in this single deity, the equivalent of the Greek Ares and Roman Mars.
ÑTdivini.dir 207 Etruscan name for the god of fire, corresponding to the Greek Hephaestus or Roman Vulcan.
ÑTdivini.dir 208 Etruscan name for the Greek deity Apollo, the god of light, divination, poetry, and music.
ÑTdivini.dir 209 Etruscan name for the Greek deity Artemis, goddess of hunting and the equivalent of the Roman Diana.
ÑTdivini.dir 210 Etruscan god corresponding to the Greek Dionysus and the Roman Bacchus (god of wine).
ÑTetruria.dir 201 The literary and artistic culture of the Etruscans was initially deeply influenced by other, more highly evolved peoples of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoenicians and Greeks. Subsequently Etruscan artists proved capable of reworking the forms and styles borrowed from elsewhere to develop a language of their own. In other fields, however, they were more independent and original. One of these was music, for which they had a great love. It was performed on numerous wind and string instruments. Indeed the Etruscans were often considered to have been their inventors. Other very popular arts were dance and drama. It also seems that the famous gladiatorial games originated in the Etruscan colony of Capua in Campania, from where they were ╟exported╚ to Rome.
ÑTetruria.dir 202 Like many other civilizations in the Mediterranean region, in the early part of their history the Etruscans had an economy based essentially on agriculture and stock rearing. But the mineral resources of Elba, the Populonia region, and the Tolfa mountains were exploited even in very ancient times. It was from these two resources, metal ores and farming, that the Etruscans derived their splendor and power. The Etruscans learned to build ships at a very early date, and thus were able to export these goods all over the Mediterranean region, trading them for splendid and valuable manufactured articles from the East, from the Phoenician world, and from Greece. In addition to providing food, stock raising supplied beasts of burden that were indispensable to the transport of goods on land and to the cultivation of fields. Other important activities were handicrafts, hunting, and fishing.
ÑTetruria.dir 203 Etruscan society was highly conservative and fairly uniform. At its top stood the kings or lucumones, most of whom belonged to the upper class. The latter's wealth and power were based on farming, trade, and piracy. It is about these noble families, with their large amounts of capital and huge estates, that we know the most. Below the nobility on the social scale came the middle class, made up of farmers, craftsmen, and merchants.
ÑTetruria.dir 204 At the bottom of the heap were the multitude of servants and slaves, who were captured during acts of piracy and war. The demand for slaves was very high and there were merchants who specialized in supplying them. However it seems that slaves received better treatment from the Etruscans than they did in Rome.
ÑTfami.dir 171 Tomb of the Baron, detail of the frescoes - Tarquinia
ÑTfami.dir 172 Dance scene
ÑTfami.dir 173 Sarcophagus of the Bride and Groom, end of 6th cent. BC - Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia
ÑTfami.dir 174 Banquet scene
ÑTfami.dir 201 The Etruscan family was essentially the same as the Roman one, especially where the undisputed authority of the father was concerned. The main difference lay in the condition of the women, described with astonishment by Greeks and Romans as dissolute and excessively elegant.
ÑTfami.dir 202 In reality the amazement derived from the fact that Etruscan women, instead of being relegated to the gynaeceum, were able to move freely, even attending public games, banquets, and ceremonies. The importance of women in Etruscan society is testified by the fact that in inscriptions their names are preceded, like those of the men, with a given name, and that the names of both father and mother are given for everyone.
ÑTfami.dir 203 ╚ POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
ÑTfunerar.dir 201 Ever since the Villanova period (ninth-eighth century BC) it had been the custom in the Etruscan necropolises to cremate bodies and store the ashes in urns.
ÑTfunerar.dir 202 Initially the urns usually consisted of a vase that was covered by a bowl if the dead person was a woman, and by a helmet if a man. This was clearly intended to signify their different virtues.
ÑTfunerar.dir 203 Another type was the urn in the form of a hut, which faithfully reproduced the structure of the dead person's home.
ÑTfunerar.dir 204 Later on, and in Chiusi in particular, the features of the dead person were outlined on the lid of the vase, at first in an approximate manner and then, in the so-called Canopic vases, with increasing realism. They eventually came to represent the deceased in his or her entirety, reclining in the typical position of the banquet.
ÑTfunerar.dir 205 Thus the Canopic vases were transformed into cinerary urns or ash chests, which could be made out of terracotta but were also carved out of marble or alabaster. They were always painted in bright colors so as to represent the dead person and his or her objects in the most lifelike way possible.
ÑTistit.dir 201 As in the Greek world, the Etruscan civilization was organized into independent city states. In the archaic era, at least up until the end of the sixth century BC, they were ruled by ╟lucumones╚ i.e. by priest-kings who held supreme power. The ancient authors often referred to an Etruscan ╟dodecapolis,╚ an economic and religious league or federation of the most important cities. It is likely that such an alliance served a political and military purpose as well. Between the end of the fifth and the sixth century BC the monarchy was replaced by a system of oligarchy, with collegial and temporary elected magistratures.
ÑTistit.dir 202 At times this transition was a traumatic process, passing through periods of tyranny and military dictatorship. Emblematic of this was the case of Rome, where Mastarna (Servius Tullius) overthrew the dynasty of the Tarquins and carried out a major reform of the constitution. Among the various magistratures known to us from the epigraphic documents that have survived, the Zilaq was the highest office of the state, comparable to the Roman praetor. The term is often accompanied by other words specifying his functions, and thus there was a Zilaq in charge of religious matters, a Zilaq responsible for the protection of clients and the plebs, and another who was entrusted with the interests of the nobility.
ÑTistit.dir 203 THE LUCUMONES
The equivalent of the king in a monarchy, the lucumo had been the ruler of an Etruscan city since very ancient times and exerted absolute military, judicial, and religious authority. His investiture was divine. According to the Latin authors the marks of his sovereignty were the gold crown, the scepter, the toga, the throne, and the lictor's fasces, which consisted of wooden rods tied in a bundle around a two-edged axe. The names of many of the lucumones of ancient Etruria are known to us from the epigraphic sources. Between the end of the sixth and the fifth century BC the lucumones were replaced by elected magistrates.
ÑTistit.dir 204 THE DODECAPOLIS
The term ╟dodecapolis╚ is a modern one. The ancient authors speak of a league of twelve peoples, corresponding to the most important city states of Etruria, and similar federations must have existed in the Etruscan communities of the Po Valley and Campania. The league was probably headed by the Zilaq Mecl Rasnal, or the ╟praetor of the fifteen peoples,╚ and this office continued to exist even when Rome had turned the confederation into a mere religious association. The representatives of the cities met periodically at Volsinii to discuss problems common to the whole Etruscan nation.
ÑTmarza.dir 171 Marzabotto, the Acropolis
ÑTmarza.dir 172 Marzabotto, the excavations
ÑTmarza.dir 173 Marzabotto, the right-angled layout
ÑTmarza.dir 201 In the middle valley of the Reno, about 20 km from Bologna, an ancient Etruscan city stood on the site of what is now Marzabotto. In the second half of the sixth century BC it was occupied by an irregular and unplanned settlement with huts built out of perishable material. The city laid out in a regular checkerboard pattern dates from the fifth century BC. To the northwest stood the acropolis with its sacred buildings. Various crafts flourished at Marzabotto: brickmaking, pottery and ironworking. The city was abandoned in the second half of the third century BC.
ÑTmarza.dir 202 THE ORTHOGONAL LAYOUT OF MARZABOTTO
The ancient city, today partly submerged, with its regular blocks, broad paved streets, and drains to collect rainwater, provides historical evidence of extreme importance about city planning in the remote past. The dwellings, usually with a single story, had internal subdivisions of different types. Many had only one front onto the road and an inner court (atrium) around which the various rooms are arranged. The walls of wood and air-dried bricks, with elements made of travertine, stood on pebble foundations. The houses had architectural decorations in terracotta.
ÑTmetalli.dir 171 Furnaces for the fusion of metals, graphic reconstruction
ÑTmetalli.dir 172 Furnaces for the fusion of metals, vertical section
ÑTmetalli.dir 174 Ossuary made of sheet bronze, late 8th cent. BC - Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia
ÑTmetalli.dir 201 Copper, iron, and, to a lesser extent, zinc, lead, and silver, were the main source of wealth and development for the Etruscan civilization. The ore-bearing area included the Tolfa mountains and the territories of Populonia, Vetulonia, and Elba. Traces of intense mining activity are most clearly evident at Populonia, described by many as the ╟Pittsburgh of antiquity.╚ The metal extracted was exported to the main ports of the Mediterranean. From a certain moment onward, the activity of refining and working the metals was concentrated in a few centers, including Populonia, since the large furnaces required enormous quantities of wood that were not always easy to obtain. Etruscan craftsmen developed great skill in the working of metals, especially bronze and gold.
╚ AGRICULTURE
╚ HUNTING AND FISHING
╚ TRADE
ÑTmilit.dir 171
ÑTmilit.dir 172
ÑTmilit.dir 173
ÑTmilit.dir 174
ÑTmilit.dir 175
ÑTmilit.dir 176
ÑTmilit.dir 177
ÑTmilit.dir 201 HELMETS
Various types of helmets are documented for the Villanova period (ninth-eighth century BC). Skullcap-shaped ones made of simple, decorated bronze sheet, projecting ones with internal padding, and helmets with crests or other appendages on top.
In the age of Orientalization ribs were added on top of the simple skullcap and a brim set at the bottom to provide better protection for heads from downward blows. There was also growing use of the Corinthian helmet with its T-shaped aperture that left only the eyes and mouth uncovered.
ÑTmilit.dir 202 THE SHIELD
The shields most widely used in the Villanova era (ninth-eighth century BC) were round and made of leather, covered with an embossed sheet of bronze. Inside there was not only a grip but also a long strap so that it could be carried over the shoulder when not being used in combat. In the archaic era the circular shield took on a convex shape and its diameter increased to around a meter, so that soldiers standing in line could be protected by their companions. There were also elliptical and square shields.
ÑTmilit.dir 203 SPEARS
In the Villanova era they were about 1.20 m long. The bronze leaf shaped point was equipped with a socket and hole for attachment to the wooden shaft. From the seventh century onward their length increased to around 2 m. There were also lighter javelins.
ÑTmilit.dir 204 THE SWORD
The swords used in the Villanova era (ninth eighth century BC) had no hand guards and their blades were made of bronze or iron and stiffened with longitudinal ribs. The swords of the seventh century, mostly made of iron, were stronger and the triangular blade grew straighter to facilitate cutting stokes. Their hilts were often richly decorated. There is evidence for the use of the curved saber (the madraira) in the sixth and fifth centuries. It had a length of about 90 cm and grew wider toward the tip so as to lend more weight to a blow delivered from above.
ÑTmilit.dir 205 CUIRASSES
These were originally made of canvas with square or round studs of rolled iron. Subsequently bronze cuirasses were used, made of several pieces or of a single element molded to fit the musculature of the male trunk.
ÑTmilit.dir 206 SHIN GUARDS
Their appearance during the seventh century was a response to the need to protect the shins and calves. Later on it became the practice to use cuisses formed out of two pieces of bronze bound together by two thongs.
ÑTmilit.dir 207 WARSHIPS
As early as the seventh century warships already had an elongated form with a faired keel. The prow was equipped with a rostrum or beak that served the dual purpose of keeping the craft stable and ramming enemy ships. This was, according to Pliny the Elder, a typically Etruscan invention. In the fifth century the ship, rigged with sails, had two banks of oarsmen at the sides, while the helmsman steered the ship in the stern.
ÑTorvieto.dir 171 Panorama of Orvieto
ÑTorvieto.dir 172 Necropolis of the Crocefisso del Tufo, Orvieto
ÑTorvieto.dir 173 Necropolis of the Crocefisso del Tufo, Orvieto
ÑTorvieto.dir 174 Necropolis of the Crocefisso del Tufo, Orvieto
ÑTorvieto.dir 201 This was an important Etruscan center located on a plateau of red tufa overlooking the middle valley of the Tiber. Already inhabited in the Villanova era, it attained its greatest splendor between the sixth and fifth century BC. The town, whose site is now occupied by the medieval and modern city, had several sacred buildings, including the Temple of the Belvedere, which may have been dedicated to Tinia (= Zeus, Jupiter). Of particular interest among the necropolises are that of ╟Crocefisso del Tufo╚ with its regular urban-style layout and that of the ╟Cannicella,╚ where the tombs are adapted to follow the morphology of the terrain and are often built on top of one another. Several painted tombs and the remains of important sacred buildings have been found in the surrounding region. The city was gradually abandoned over the course of the third century BC.
ÑTorvieto.dir 202 THE NECROPOLIS OF CROCEFISSO DEL TUFO
It is laid out on an urban checkerboard plan. In fact the tombs were arranged in blocks of a square or rectangular shape, bordered by roads that met at right angles. The tombs, covered with mounds of earth, were built out of squared blocks of tufa laid without mortar. The facades were decorated with architectural pediments and the name of the dead person was often inscribed on the architrave. Inside there was a burial chamber, covered by a false dome and sometimes preceded by a vestibule.
ÑTperugia.dir 171 Perugia, panorama
ÑTperugia.dir 172 The Gate of Mars, Perugia
ÑTperugia.dir 173 Hypogeum of the Volumni, central room
ÑTperugia.dir 174 Hypogeum of the Volumni, sarcophagi in the funeral chamber
ÑTperugia.dir 175 Inscribed pillar from Perugia, beginning of 2nd cent. BC - Perugia, Museo Archeologico
ÑTperugia.dir 201 The Etruscan city of Perugia stood at the junction of important routes to Latium, northern Etruria, and the Adriatic coast. Livy, a Latin writer of the first century BC, refers to it as one of the Etruscan centers of the dodecapolis. It attained its maximum splendor between the fourth and third centuries. It was destroyed and set on fire by Octavian in 42 BC and subsequently rebuilt from scratch by the Romans. Of particular interest are the remains of the city wall constructed out of blocks of travertine, the Gate of Mars, the so-called ╟Arch of Augustus,╚ and the hypogeum of the Volumni.
ÑTperugia.dir 202 PERUGIA: THE GATE OF MARS
It was built in the second century BC and underwent various alterations, until 1500 when Antonio da Sangallo inserted its upper face in the Rocca Paolina. It had a characteristic false gallery, with four small fluted pillars crowned by Ionic capitals, closed at the front by a low transenna from which three male figures and two equine protomes peer out. Two large pillars framed the arch and the overhanging structure.
ÑTperugia.dir 203 PERUGIA: HYPOGEUM OF THE VOLUMNI
This is a tomb carved in its entirety out of the tufa and dating from between the second and the first century BC. Access was provided by a steep flight of 29 steps and it was designed to resemble a late Etruscan house: a rectangular atrium covered by a saddle roof with false beams and rafters gave, through a large door, onto the tablinum. It was in this room that the six cinerary urns made of travertine and belonging to prosperous members of the Velimna family were found in 1840.
ÑTperugia.dir 204 PERUGIA: THE INSCRIBED PILLAR OF PERUGIA
On its two faces the pillar bears 46 lines of text dating from the second century BC, which seem to refer to boundaries between different properties.
ÑTpopulo.dir 171 The Gulf of Baratti
ÑTpopulo.dir 172 Populonia, the Walls
ÑTpopulo.dir 173 Populonia, the Necropolis
ÑTpopulo.dir 174 Remains of a furnace for the fusion of metals, Val Fucinaia
ÑTpopulo.dir 201 On an eminence overlooking the Bay of Porto Baratti to the north of Piombino stood the important Etruscan metropolis of Populonia. Stretches of the ancient city's mighty walls can still be seen, while the necropolis provides evidence for the uninterrupted occupation of the site from the ninth to the third century. Its great burial mounds with vaulted and domed cells are characteristic. Populonia was one of the most important centers for the working of iron in the ancient world; in fact the oldest tombs have been found underneath enormous heaps of iron slag created by the smelting of the ore that was extracted in the Etruscan and Roman eras from the mines on the island of Elba and worked at Populonia. The best-preserved furnaces include that of the ╟Poggio della Porcareccia╚ and those of ╟Val Fucinaia╚ at the Temperino mine.
ÑTpopulo.dir 202 FURNACES FOR METALWORKING
The furnaces used to smelt partially refined metal from the ore were usually located at the mines themselves or in their vicinity. Many of them were in the shape of a cylinder or truncated cone and they were lined on the inside with refractory materials. Alternate layers of crude ore and charcoal were introduced through an opening at the top. With the fire lit in the lower chamber, the heat rose upward through a horizontal layer pierced by a series of holes. The smelted ore then collected in the lower chamber, where it was cleansed of slag by opening a hole at the right height. It was necessary to dismantle the furnace in order to remove the solidified product. The metal then went through further processes of refinement.
ÑTpyrgi.dir 171 Pyrgi, the beach
ÑTpyrgi.dir 172 Pyrgi, the gate
ÑTpyrgi.dir 173 Gold leaf from Pyrgi with Etruscan inscription. 500 BC - Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia
ÑTpyrgi.dir 201 This was, according to the ancient sources, the main naval base of Caere and was linked to the city, some 13 km away, by a wide road. The first permanent settlement on the site dates from the end of the seventh century BC. Flourishing in the period of the ╟Etruscan Thalassocracy╚, it housed one of the most celebrated shrines in the Mediterranean, dedicated to Leucothea (the White Goddess) or Ilythia. The ancient authors record that it was plundered by Dionysius of Syracuse in 384 BC. After Rome's annexation of the Caere coast, a seaside colony was founded there in the middle of the third century BC. The Etruscan township, now partly submerged, originally covered an area of about 10 hectares and had streets that intersected at right angles and houses built out of air-dried bricks and roofed with tiles.
ÑTpyrgi.dir 202 THE TABLETS (Late sixth century BC)
In 1864 three rectangular sheets of gold leaf were found in Pyrgi, carefully folded and stored in a safe place. It is likely that they were originally nailed to the jambs or doors of the temple. Two of them bear an inscription in Etruscan (16 lines) and one in a Phoenician language (11 lines). They represent the dedication of a temple to the goddess Uni (the equivalent of the Phoenician Ashtaroth) by a lord of Caere, Thefarie Velianas, in the third year of his reign. The moment in history was probably that of the alliance between Caere and Carthage after the battle of Alalia. The tablets represent the earliest Punic inscription found on the Italian mainland and the earliest Etruscan document relating to contemporary history.
ÑTrel.dir 201 The Latin authors were unanimous in describing the Etruscans as a ╟highly religious people╚, expert in the art of divination. In fact they had an extensive religious literature, now unfortunately lost forever. There was a set of strict rules governing worship and the interpretation of the divine will. It is possible for us to get some idea of what these were through brief Latin translations and such extremely rare Etruscan relics as the Zagreb mummy, the Piacenza liver, and the Capua tile. We also know that the Etruscan faith was a revealed religion, based on prophecies attributed to Tages and to the nymph Vegonia. Among the early Etruscans the divine always appeared in a very vague manner, with regard to both appearance and functions, and it is reasonable to suppose that there was originally a single divine being that manifested itself in a multitude of ways, assuming different connotations.
ÑTrel.dir 202 A transformation of the Etruscan religion took place between the eighth and fourth century BC. New deities were imported into Etruria from Greece; the indigenous ones took on human form and gradually inherited the characteristics and functions of the gods of classical Olympus. The Etruscans paid particular attention to the world of the dead, giving tombs the appearance of the dead person's earthly abode and filling them with furniture, household objects, clothes, jewelry, weapons, food, and drink. In fact they believed that in some way the mortal remains of the deceased survived in the place where they were laid to rest. As Etruscan civilization waned, it was their religion that exercised the greatest influence on the Roman world.
ÑTrel.dir 203 THE PIACENZA LIVER
This is a small bronze model of a sheep's liver, dating from the second century BC and found near Piacenza in 1877. It is inscribed with the names of several deities corresponding to the individual parts of the animal's organ. It was used, perhaps for educational purposes, by Etruscan priests (the haruspices) to interpret the will of the gods. Absence of the anatomical excrescences that can be seen in the model had an inauspicious significance.
ÑTrel.dir 204 THE ZAGREB MUMMY
This is the most important Etruscan manuscript to have survived in the original language. It is a liturgical calendar listing the principal ceremonies of the year that was discovered in Egypt. It was originally in the form of a scroll (volumen), but was subsequently cut into strips and used to wrap the body of a young woman in the Ptolemaic or imperial era. Originally it must have been a text with at least twelve vertical columns. The precious document is now in the Zagreb Museum.
ÑTroselle.dir 171 The city walls, Roselle
ÑTroselle.dir 172 Roselle, the Etruscan walls
ÑTroselle.dir 173 Roselle, the arch
ÑTroselle.dir 174 View of the walls
ÑTroselle.dir 201 Roselle, one of the cities of the Etruscan dodecapolis, stood on two rises overlooking the plain around Grosseto, which was occupied in ancient times by a large lake (Lacus Prilius) that extended from Roselle to Vetulonia. Its period of greatest splendor was in the sixth and fifth century BC, in parallel with the decline of nearby Vetulonia. The sixth-century city walls, constructed out of large blocks of local stone, are of particular interest. The walls of air-dried bricks that surrounded the oldest part of the city date from the seventh century BC.
ÑTscritt.dir 171 Tablet inscibed with letters of the Latin alphabet
ÑTscritt.dir 201 Toward the end of the eighth century BC the Etruscans already had an alphabet, introduced into central Italy by Greek colonists from Euboea who had first settled on Ischia (ca. 775 BC) and then at Cumae. This alphabet originally consisted of 26 letters, but only 22 of them were used for Etruscan writing. The appearance of punctuation marks for the separation of words dates from the same period. After the end of the archaic era, the number of letters in the alphabet settled at 20. Just as in the Greek world, it is possible to distinguish between local scripts on the basis of the use of different letters for the same sound. Between the second and the first century BC the Etruscan alphabet was gradually abandoned in favor of the Latin one.
ÑTscritt.dir 202 The Etruscans used their alphabet to write their records and their books. From the literary sources we know that they had an extensive literature made up of religious texts, history books in the form of annals, and scripts for dramas, but unfortunately none of this copious output has survived. All that we are left with is around a thousand inscriptions, most of them funeral epigraphs, telling us no more than the particulars of the deceased (given name, family name, and patronymic). More complex texts such as the book of the ╟Zagreb mummy╚, the ╟Capua tile╚, the ╟inscribed pillar of Perugia╚, and the ╟Pyrgi tablets╚ are extremely rare.
ÑTscritt.dir 203 Texts that are perfectly legible but not completely comprehensible. In fact the Etruscan tongue does not seem to be related to any other ancient or modern idiom. Its syntactical and grammatical structure are only partly understood. And yet it is not an obscure and mysterious language. It has yielded up its secrets to scholars step by step through detailed comparison of the various inscriptions with facts that have been brought to light by a number of different and complex methods. It is not impossible that the discovery of some bilingual inscription in the future will make a new and fundamental contribution toward its thorough comprehension.
╚ART
ÑTsovana.dir 171 The sunken street of San Sebastiano in the necropolis of Sovana
ÑTsovana.dir 172 The Sopraripa necropolis, 3rd cent. BC - Sovana
ÑTsovana.dir 173 The Tomb of Hildebrand, Sovana
ÑTsovana.dir 174 The Tomb of Hildebrand, interior
ÑTsovana.dir 175 Tomb of Hildebrand, detail of the columns
ÑTsovana.dir 201 The Etruscan settlement of Sovana stood on the left bank of the river Fiora, on a plateau of tufa with steep cliffs on three sides. Between the seventh and sixth century BC the town must have been part of the territory of Vulci, but toward the end of the sixth century its interests probably shifted toward the area of the Tiber. In the famous paintings in the Franìois Tomb in Vulci we find a personage from Sovana fighting alongside Tarquinius of Rome against the Volscenti. In the middle of the fourth century BC, after a period of relative decline, Sovana experienced an upturn in its fortunes, as is attested by the presence of objects from Chiusi in the tombs. Around the middle of the first century BC Etruscan tombs ceased to be built in the various necropolises. Among the most important monuments in Sovana are the rock tombs (dado, shrine, and temple tombs), including the celebrated tomb of Hildebrand.
ÑTsovana.dir 202 SOVANA: TOMB OF HILDEBRAND
Dating from around the middle of the second century BC, it is carved entirely out of the tufa of the hill in which it is set. Its external appearance was that of a temple with six columns at the front and three at the sides. It must have originally had a rich sculptural decoration and been painted in bright colors. The entablature had two friezes of different heights decorated with figures of griffins and foliage; the fluted columns had capitals with volutes decorated with male and female figures. Behind the pronaos there was a false cell on a square plan. The burial chamber was underground and entered by means of a sloping corridor.
ÑTstoria.dir 201 THE LEGENDARY ORIGINS
The ancients themselves addressed the problem of the origins of the Etruscans. Herodotus, the celebrated Greek historian of the fifth century BC, was the first to claim that they came from the East, to be precise from Lydia in Asia Minor. This thesis later gained considerable support and is still widely accepted in our own day. On the other hand Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian of the Augustan era, argued that the Etruscans were of indigenous origin, and that their original name had been Rasenna. A number of modern historians have put forward the claim that the Etruscans had moved south from the Alpine regions into central Italy. Today there is less talk of their place of origin and more interest in the formation of the Etruscan nation in central Italy. A complex process of formation in which it is possible to discern and compare Oriental, Continental, and indigenous elements.
ÑTstoria.dir 202 VILLANOVA CULTURE
Villanova is the conventional name that was given to the culture of the early Iron Age in Italy (ninth century BC) following the discoveries made in the village of Villanova near Bologna. It represents the oldest expression of the already developed Etruscan civilization, as is demonstrated by the evident superimposition of historical Etruria on the sites where the Villanova culture was based.
ÑTstoria.dir 203 ORIENTALIZING PERIOD
This is characterized by the discovery of many ╟Oriental╚ objects, especially among those placed in tombs from the seventh and the early sixth century BC. These objects were either imported directly from the East or made in Etruria by foreign artists, although some may have been imitations by skilled local craftsmen. The phenomenon of Orientalization is a clear sign of intense activity in the sea off the coast of Etruria and of extensive trading by the Etruscans.
ÑTstoria.dir 204 ETRUSCAN THALASSOCRACY:
MASTERY OF THE SEAS
Evidence for the Etruscan domination of the seas, which reached its height between the seventh and sixth century BC, comes from archeological data and the literary sources. In the ╟Homeric╚ hymn to Dionysus, the god is seized by Tyrrhenian pirates whom he succeeds in turning into dolphins. Other authors speak of an Etruscan colonization of Corsica, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, and the coasts of Spain. The two main Italian seas, the Tyrrhenian and the Adriatic, derive their names from the people of the Etruscans (the Tyrrhenes) and from Hatria or Adria (a Veneto-Etruscan port).
ÑTstoria.dir 205 TARQUINIUS PRISCUS (615-578)
The historians relate that Tarquinius known as Priscus, i.e. the First, came to Rome from the noble city of Tarquinia, together with his wife Tanaquilla. Having won the esteem and trust of the Roman king Ancus Marcius, he inherited the reign on the latter's death. The story hints at a peaceful passage of Rome under Etruscan rule or influence. It is in any case quite natural that the Etruscans, present in Campania since the ninth century, should have felt the need to secure communications by land with their colonies, and any such route would necessarily have had to cross the river Tiber at a point near the Tiber Island. The presence of Etruscans in Rome in the seventh century is documented by numerous archeological finds.
ÑTstoria.dir 206 SERVIUS TULLIUS (MASTARNA)
(578 -534)
According to the Etruscan version of history, Servius Tullius came to Rome and occupied the Coelian hill, going on to seize power with the help of the Vibenna brothers. Under his rule Rome reached a high level of power and splendor. The sources credit Servius Tullius with an important reform of the constitution and the construction of the first city walls in Rome.
ÑTstoria.dir 207 THE EXPLOITS OF MASTARNA AND THE VIBENNA BROTHERS
It is likely that the Etruscan rule over Rome was overthrown by other Etruscans who came not from Tarquinia but from a different city. They probably seized power by killing King Tarquinius Priscus. Subsequently Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud) defeated them and won back his father's kingdom. In fact the paintings in the Franìois Tomb in Vulci depict a battle scene, in which Mastarna (Servius Tullius) and Aulus Vibenna, along with other personages, kill ?Gneus? Tarquinius Romanus, certainly a member of the Tarquinius dynasty, freeing ?Coelius? Vibenna from prison.
ÑTstoria.dir 208 THE BATTLE OF ALALIA
(540 BC)
This memorable battle against the Phocians was fought and won by the Etruscans and Carthaginians in the waters of the Sardinian Sea, perhaps close to the Straits of Bonifacio. Greek colonists from Asia Minor, the Phocians had founded the colony of Massilia (Marseilles) around 600 BC and had then settled at Alalia in Corsica, threatening the seas and coasts of Etruria and challenging the claims of Carthage to rule over Sardinia. The victory gave the Etruscans control over the eastern coast of Corsica while the Carthaginians were left with a free hand in Sardinia.
ÑTstoria.dir 209 PORSENNA
According to legend, Porsenna, the king of Chiusi, had come to Rome to put Tarquinius Superbus back on the throne, but the heroism displayed by Horatius ?Coclite?, ?Muzius Scevola?, and ?Clelia? induced him to renounce the enterprise. Modern historians argue that it is more likely that a conflict took place between men from different cities of Etruria for the control of Rome, much as had happened with Servius Tullius (Mastarna) and the Vibenna brothers. Etruscan domination in Latium was brought to an end by the defeat at Ariccia in 504 BC.
ÑTstoria.dir 210 SIEGE AND DESTRUCTION OF VEO
(406-396 BC)
After a siege as long as that of Troy the Roman dictator Marcus Furius Camillus conquered and destroyed the city of Veio. Legend has it that he achieved this by having a tunnel dug, through which his soldiers were able to enter the city. Celebrated in Rome with a great triumph, Camillus was later accused of having kept much of the war booty for himself and chose to go into voluntary exile in Ardea.
ÑTstoria.dir 211 THE BATTLE OF CUMAE (474 BC)
Cumae, the northernmost of the Greek colonies in Italy, represented the main obstacle to territorial expansion by the Etruscans to the south. In the latter part of the sixth century and the early part of the fifth the Etruscan cities made several attempts to conquer it, suffering their first defeat in 525 and then being routed in a naval battle by Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, in 474. Two helmets from the Greek shrine of Olympia are engraved with a dedication by Hiero recording the victory of the Syracusans over the Etruscans.
ÑTstoria.dir 212 Legendary arrival of the Lydians in Etruria
under the leadership of Tyrrhenos.
ÑTstoria.dir 213 Circa 800
Etruscan voyages into the southern Tyrrhenian Sea and beginning of the Etruscan ╟Thalassocracy.╚
ÑTstoria.dir 214 Circa 750
Rapid development of the Villanova culture that evolved in Etruria, social differentiation and emergence of a ruling class, formation of the first civilizations.
ÑTstoria.dir 215 Circa 710
First Orientalizing influences in Tyrrhenian Italy. Introduction of alphabetic (Euboean) script in Etruria.
ÑTstoria.dir 216 Circa 700-650
Full development of the Orientalized civilization with repercussions in Latium as well.
Flourishing of Cerveteri (Caere).
ÑTstoria.dir 217 Circa 650
Evolved Orientalization. Architectural decoration with terracotta begins to appear on buildings.
ÑTstoria.dir 218 Circa 615
Start of the Etruscan dynasty in Rome. Culminating phase of the Etruscan ╟Thalassocracy╚ and trade. Territorial expansion of the Etruscans.
ÑTstoria.dir 219 Circa 615-578
Reign of Tarquinius Priscius in Rome.
ÑTstoria.dir 220 Circa 580
Flourishing of Vulci in Etruria.
ÑTstoria.dir 221 Circa 578-534
Reign of Servius Tullius (Mastarna) in Rome. Social and civil conflicts in Central Italy: the exploits of Mastarna and the Vibenna brothers.
ÑTstoria.dir 222 Circa 540
Battle of Alalia (Aleria). Victory of the Etruscans of Caere, in alliance with Carthage, over the Phocians of Corsica.
ÑTstoria.dir 223 534-510
Reign of Tarquinius Superbus in Rome.
ÑTstoria.dir 224 525
The Greeks of Cumae defeat the Etruscans.
ÑTstoria.dir 225 510-509
Traditional date for the fall of the monarchy in Rome: beginning of the republic.
Expansion of Chiusi (Clusium): King Lars Porsenna in Rome.
ÑTstoria.dir 226 504
Battle of Ariccia: Harunte Porsenna is defeated by Aristodemus of Cumae in alliance with the Latins.
ÑTstoria.dir 227 474
Battle of Cuma
ÑTstoria.dir 228 477 (?)
War between Rome and the Etruscans of Veii: Roman defeat on the Cremera.
ÑTstoria.dir 229 454-453
Expedition of the Syracusan admirals against the northern seas and coasts of Etruria.
ÑTstoria.dir 230 428
New war between Rome and Veio (Veii): the Etruscan king Lars Tolumnius is killed.
ÑTstoria.dir 231 423
Occupation of Capua by the Samnites and end of Etruscan rule in Campania.
ÑTstoria.dir 232 396
Capture and destruction of Veio, after 10 years of siege, by the Romans under the command of M. Furius Camillus.
ÑTstoria.dir 233 384
Dionysius of Syracuse pillages the Etruscan sanctuary of Pyrgi.
ÑTstoria.dir 234 358-351
War of Tarquinia (Tarquinii) against Rome led by Aulus Spurinna, who overthrows the pro-Roman monarchy of Caere.
ÑTstoria.dir 235 351
40-year truce between Rome and Tarquinia.
ÑTstoria.dir 236 Circa 311
The Etruscans provide Agathocles, the tyrant of Syracuse, with a contingent of 18 ships for the war against
ÑTstoria.dir 237 311-308
Rome fights the Etruscans, who are allied with the Samnites.
ÑTstoria.dir 238 306
Treaty between Rome and Carthage: assignment of Italy to Rome and Sicily to Carthage.
ÑTstoria.dir 239 302
Roman victory over the Etruscans at Roselle.
ÑTstoria.dir 240 280
The Romans conquer Vulci: Titus Coruncanius celebrates the triumph following the victorious campaign against Vulci and Volsinii.
ÑTstoria.dir 241 265
Popular uprising in Volsinii which is conquered and destroyed by the Romans; the population is deported to Bolsena.
ÑTstoria.dir 242 241
Destruction of Falerii and deportation of its inhabitants.
ÑTstoria.dir 243 196
Slave revolt in Etruria.
ÑTstoria.dir 244 186
Repression of the Dionysiac cult, widely practiced among the Italic allies.
ÑTstoria.dir 245 123-121
Proposal of laws that also favor the Italic allies and the death of Caius Gracchus.
ÑTstoria.dir 246 82
Sulla confiscates part of the territory of Chiusi, Arezzo (Arretium), Fiesole, and Volterra (Volaterrae), in which to settle his own veterans as colonists.
ÑTstoria.dir 247 42
Perugia (Perusia), where the supporters of Mark Anthony have taken refuge, is besieged and destroyed by Octavian.
ÑTstoria.dir 248 27
Etruria becomes the 7th Region of Roman Italy.
ÑTstoria.dir 249 900 b.C.
ÑTstoria.dir 250 800 b.C.
ÑTstoria.dir 251 700 b.C.
ÑTstoria.dir 252 600 b.C.
ÑTstoria.dir 253 500 b.C.
ÑTstoria.dir 254 400 b.C.
ÑTstoria.dir 255 300 b.C.
ÑTstoria.dir 256 200 b.C.
ÑTstoria.dir 257 100 b.C.
ÑTstoria.dir 258 0
ÑTstoria.dir 259 LEGENDARY ORIGINS
ÑTstoria.dir 260 VILLANOVA CULTURE
ÑTstoria.dir 261 ORIENTALIZATION
ÑTstoria.dir 262 VILLANOVA CULTURE
ÑTtalamo.dir 171 The Lighthouse and the Sienese Fortress, Talamone
ÑTtalamo.dir 172 The Pediment of Talamone, 2nd cent. BC - Florence, Museo Archeologico
ÑTtalamo.dir 173 The Pediment of Talamone, detail
ÑTtalamo.dir 201 On the high hill of Talamonaccio, in a position overlooking the sea and the hills further inland, stood the ancient Etruscan center of Talamon. Its harbor played a role of considerable importance as a port for the trade between the northern and southern cities of coastal Etruria. The city was probably under the sway of Vulci or Caletra, and in the third century BC entered the Roman sphere of influence. In the second half of the fourth century a temple was erected on top of the hill, and this underwent restoration in 150 BC. The well-known pediment with its representations of the myth of the ╟Seven against Thebes╚ dates from this second phase.
ÑTtalamo.dir 202 TALAMONE: THE TEMPLE OF TALAMON
Dating from the second half of the fourth century BC, the temple stood on a base of tufa blocks that was about two meters high. It probably had a single cell and two lateral wings. The pronaos, which originally probably had only two columns, was closed at the sides by extensions of the outside walls. Around 150 BC it underwent radical alterations, especially with regard to the front. The pediment was enclosed by a high relief in terracotta depicting the sons of Oedipus meeting in mortal combat under the walls of Thebes: a lively composition of such a size that it had to be cut into several pieces in order to be fired. The temple was destroyed by a fire around 100 BC.
ÑTtarqui.dir 171 The Necropolis of Tarquinia
ÑTtarqui.dir 172 The Altar of the Queen, Tarquinia
ÑTtarqui.dir 173 The Altar of the Queen
ÑTtarqui.dir 201 On the Tyrrhenian shore, at a distance of about 100 km from Rome, stood the important Etruscan city of Tarquinia. Of very ancient origins, legend attributes its foundation to Tarcon, the brother of the Tyrrhenus who was supposed to have led the Etruscans from Lydia to Italy. The ancient city was set on the Civita Hill, where the remains of the walls and a large temple called ╟The Altar of the Queen╚ have been discovered. Around it lay the vast necropolis in which over fifty painted tombs have been found, covering a period from the sixth to the second-first century BC: Tarquinia, which was one of the most important centers of the Etruscan dodecapolis, reached its zenith between the seventh and sixth centuries BC: it was then, in fact, that one of its citizens, Tarquinius Priscus, became the fifth king of Rome. In the fourth century BC the city became subject to Rome, but still managed to retain a degree of autonomy for some time after that.
ÑTtarqui.dir 202 ETRUSCAN TEMPLE, ALTAR OF THE QUEEN
Discovered to the south of the city of Tarquinia, it dates from some time in the second half of the fourth century BC. The scanty remains of the sacred building are not sufficient to reconstruct its original appearance with certainty. It probably had a fairly elongated plan, a pronaos with four columns at the front and a single cell flanked by side walls. Many architectural decorations made of terracotta were found during the excavations, including the superb group of winged horses that was set on the temple's pediment, one of the masterpieces of Etruscan sculpture.
ÑTtempio.dir 171 Graphic reconstruction of the temple of Talamonaccio
ÑTtempio.dir 172 The temple of Talamonaccio, plan
ÑTtempio.dir 173 Graphic reconstruction of antefix
ÑTtempio.dir 201 The temple is undoubtedly one of the most original and interesting monuments of Italic and Etruscan architecture. The Etruscan temple presents profound differences in its forms, relationships, and spaces with respect to that of the Greeks. Its peculiar and constant characteristic is that it has a wooden structure, with brightly colored facings combined with bricks and decorative terracottas. Even the proportions are different from the Greek temple: the very broad and projecting roof seems to squash the building into the ground; the columns of the pronaos, widely spaced and set in several rows, take up almost half of the high stone podium, to which access is provided by a central flight of steps.
ÑTtempio.dir 202 This accentuates the markedly frontal character of the building, which is one of the constant features of Etrusco-Italic architecture. The cell, which occupies the rest of the podium, could be split into three parts or flanked on two sides by columns. The pediment usually left visible the wooden structures of the roof and the end of the large ridge pole (columen). The orientation of the main axis was also different: east-west for the Greek temple, north-south for the Etruscan one.
ÑTveio.dir 171 Veio, the archeological zone
ÑTveio.dir 172 Veio, the archeological zone
ÑTveio.dir 173 The Sanctuary of Portonaccio
ÑTveio.dir 174 Campana Tomb, reconstruction of the entrance
ÑTveio.dir 175 Campana Tomb, frescoed interior
ÑTveio.dir 176 Campana Tomb, second cella
ÑTveio.dir 201 On a vast tufaceous promontory, only 15 km from Rome and close to the ancient stream of CrÄmera, stood the city of Veio. Created out of the fusion of several villages during the Villanova era (ninth century BC), Veio reached the height of its splendor in the archaic era (seventh century BC). It was conquered by the Romans at the beginning of the fourth century BC. Its most important monuments include the Shrine of Portonaccio and the ╟Campana Tomb╚, from the age of Orientalization.
ÑTveio.dir 202 THE SHRINE OF PORTONACCIO
The shrine was probably linked to the cult of health-giving waters, from the springs that abounded in the region. Its construction dates from the middle of the sixth century BC. Inside the sacred area, surrounded by a wall, stood the temple, built on the Etruscan architectural pattern with three cells and a wide pronaos that had four columns arranged in two rows. A large pool set against the northern side of the temple may have been used by pilgrims for bathing. All that is visible of the sacred building today is part of the basement, constructed out of blocks of tufa.
ÑTveio.dir 203 CAMPANA TOMB
It takes its name from Cavaliere Campana, who discovered it in the necropolis of Monte Michele in 1843. The tomb, hollowed out of the rock, dates from the beginning of the sixth century BC and is of particular importance for its paintings with Orientalized motifs.
ÑTvetulo.dir 171 Ruins of the Etruscan city, Vetulonia
ÑTvetulo.dir 172 The Tumulus of the Pietrera, 7th cent. BC - Vetulonia
ÑTvetulo.dir 173 Tumulus of the Pietrera - 7th cent. BC, Vetulonia
ÑTvetulo.dir 201 After much uncertainty, the site of the ancient city of Vetulonia was identified at the locality of Poggio Colonna in the Grosseto area, where the remains of city walls and of dwellings were found. The earliest settlement dates back to the Villanova era (ninth-eighth century BC), while the city's period of greatest political and economic development was in the seventh and early part of the sixth century. Later the city went into sudden and total decline. The prosperity attained by Vetulonia in the seventh century, as testified by the rich collection of objects found in the tombs, was certainly linked to the exploitation of deposits of metal ore (lead, copper, and silver) at nearby Massa Marittima. In fact there was a flourishing local bronze manufacturing industry. An important feature of the extensive necropolis is the ╟Tumulus of Pietrera╚ (seventh century BC) where the first examples of Etruscan stone statues carved in full relief were found.
ÑTvolter.dir 171 View of Volterra
ÑTvolter.dir 172 Bas-relief from a sarcophagus, Volterra, Museo Guarnacci
ÑTvolter.dir 173 Porta all' arco, Volterra
ÑTvolter.dir 174 Graphic reproduction of the walls of Volterra
ÑTvolter.dir 201 The ancient city of Volterra, one of the most important Etruscan centers in inland Etruria, stood on a hill with natural terraces. The first settlements date from the Villanova era (ninth-eighth century BC) and evidence for their existence is provided by ╟well-shaped tombs╚ in which the ashes of the dead person were stored in a vase. Of particular interest are the massive fourth-century city walls, which are pierced by the so-called ╟Porta all'Arco.╚ The economy of Volterra was based chiefly on agriculture and the exploitation of ore deposits. Handicrafts flourished in the city: characteristic products included archaic carved stelae, the painted vases of the fourth and third century BC, and cinerary urns in alabaster with high reliefs.
ÑTvolter.dir 202 PORTA ALL'ARCO
Between the middle of the third and the end of the second century BC an elegant arch-shaped gate was opened in the southern side of the fourth-century city walls. Two large arches, whose sides are formed of carefully squared blocks of stone, enclose an internal tunnel roofed with a barrel vault. On the external supporting arch are set three heads of dark stone that may represent Jupiter and the Dioscuri.
ÑTvolter.dir 203 THE CITY WALLS
They were constructed during the fourth century BC out of squared blocks of local stone. With a circumference of about 7 km, they enclosed an area of 116 hectares, much larger than the later medieval and modern town. This permitted the inhabitants of the small settlements scattered over the surrounding territory to take refuge in the city when invasion threatened.
ÑTvulci.dir 171 The valley of the Fiora, Vulci
ÑTvulci.dir 172 Vulci, house from the Roman era
ÑTvulci.dir 173 Vulci, the archeological zone
ÑTvulci.dir 201 On the right bank of the Fiora stream stood Vulci, one of the largest cities in southern Etruria. The city reached the height of its power between the sixth and the first half of the fifth century BC, as is demonstrated by the immense cemeteries and the rich contents of the tombs. A period of crisis in economics and production was followed by a brilliant recovery in the fourth century. The foundation of the colony of Cosa (273 BC) by the Romans on the territory of Vulci and the later war with Hannibal were the cause of the city's progressive decline in the third and second century BC. Vulci was an important center for the manufacture and distribution of bronze objects and there were also local schools of potters who imitated Corinthian, Ionic, and Attic vases and produced Etruscan vases with red figures. Few remains of the city are still visible: sections of the walls, traces of two gates, a few buildings from the Roman era. It was in the Franìois tomb in Vulci that the famous paintings from the fourth century depicting scenes of the Etruscan conquest of Rome were found. Also worthy of note is the great burial mound of the ╟Cuccumella,╚ with its extremely complex set of underground rooms and corridors.
